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The Elbow the elbow joint is a uniaxial hinge joint formed by the humeroulnar joint antifungal lock therapy discount griseofulvin 250mg with amex, the articulation between the trochlea of the humerus and the trochlear notch of the ulna antifungal nail pills generic griseofulvin 250 mg with amex. Also associated with the elbow are the humeroradial joint and the proximal radioulnar joint antifungal pills griseofulvin 250mg line. All three of these joints are enclosed within a single articular capsule (Figure 15. The articular capsule of the elbow is thin on its anterior and posterior aspects but is thickened along its outside margins by strong intrinsic ligaments. This arises from the medial epicondyle of the humerus and attaches to the medial side of the proximal ulna. The strongest part of this ligament is the anterior portion, which resists hyperextension of the elbow. The ulnar collateral ligament may be injured by frequent, forceful extensions of the forearm, as is seen in baseball pitchers. Reconstructive surgical repair of this ligament is referred to as Tommy John surgery, named for the former major league pitcher who was the first person to have this treatment. This arises from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and then blends into the lateral side of the annular ligament. This ligament supports the head of the radius as it articulates with the radial notch of the ulna at the proximal radioulnar joint. This is a pivot joint that allows for rotation of the radius during supination and pronation of the forearm. Apply Learning Outcome 1 to describe major movements associated with the upper limb Check Your Understanding Complete the table, then use the provided actions to label the diagram. In this lesson you will learn about the nerves that innervate the muscles of the upper limb. Identify the nerves and nerve plexuses that control muscles of the upper limb Background Information Spinal Nerves Recall that there are the spinal nerves and that there are 31 spinal nerves, named for the level of the spinal cord at which each one emerges. The nerves are numbered from the superior to inferior positions, and each emerges from the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramen at its level. In Lesson 11 we discussed two of the four nerve plexuses, one at the lumbar level and one at the sacral level, which leaves the two found at the cervical level (Figure 16. Spinal nerves C1-C4 and some fibers from C5 reorganize within the cervical plexus to innervate portions of the head, neck and chest and will not be considered further in this lesson. This lesson will focus on the brachial plexus since the nerves arising from that plexus innervate the upper limb. Within the brachial plexus spinal nerves C4 through T1 reorganize to give rise to the nerves of the arms, as the name brachial suggests. Five spinal nerves merge to form three cords: a lateral, medial and posterior cord. The three cords then diverge and spread in order to innervate structures of the upper limb (Figure 16. The median cord also gives a branch to the median nerve, in addition to the ulnar nerve. The large radial nerve, arises from the posterior cord, from which the axillary nerve branches to go to the armpit region. The radial nerve continues through the arm and runs parallel with the ulnar nerve and the median nerve. The musculocutaneous nerve supplies innervation to the anterior arm, specifically to the muscles that flex the shoulder.

Arteriole vessel between a small artery and a capillary Artery vessel that carry blood away from the heart Articulations formation of joints Atrium one of the two upper chambers of the heart Autonomic nervous system division of the human nervous system that regulates involuntary actions Axial Axon towards the midline of the body nerve cell process that transmits impulses away from the cell body Buffer system a weak base or acid in the body that serves as neutralizing agent Bile substance that reduces large fat globules into smaller droplets of fat that is more easily broken down Body cavities spaces in the body holding internal organs Body plans sections fungus under breast area purchase 250mg griseofulvin fast delivery. Bronchiole one of the small subdivisions of the bronchi that branch through the lung Bronchus one of the large air tubes in the lung Cancer cells growing with out normal body control mechanism Capillary microscopic vessel through exchanges take place between the blood and the tissues Cartilage a firm but delicate connective tissue Cell the basic structural and functional unit of the body Cell inclusions divers group of substances produced and stored inside the cell Cerebellum the second largest part of the human brain that plays an essential role in the production of normal movements Cerebral cortex a thin layer of gray matter made up of neuron dendrites and cell bodies that compose the surface of the cerebrum Cerebrum the largest and upper part of the human brain that controls consciousness kill fungus gnats with cinnamon order griseofulvin us, memory kill fungus gnats houseplants order cheap griseofulvin on-line, sensations, emotions, and voluntary movements Chemoreceptor receptor that detects chemical changes Coagulation clotting, as of blood 400 Human Anatomy and Physiology Connective tissue tissues specialized for connecting and supporting the body Coronary referring to the heart or to the arteries supplying blood to the heart Corpus luteum Yellow body formed from ovarian follicle after ovulation; produces progesterone. Chyme partially digested food mixture leaving the stomach Chyle milky-appearing fluid absorbed into the lymphatic system from the small intestine. Colon intestine Conception the process of fertilization and subsequent establishment of pregnancy Contraception protection against pregnancy Cortex, renal the outer, red part of the kidney Cortical nephrone the nephrone locating inside the renal cortex Cranium a bony cavity holding the brain Cytoplasm substances surrounding organelle out of the nucleus Defecation act of eliminating undigested waste from the digestive tract Deglutition swallowing Dendrite branching or tree like; a nerve cell process that transmits impulse towards the body 401 Human Anatomy and Physiology Dermis part of the skin next beneath to epidermis Diaphragm dome-shaped muscle under the lungs that flattens during inhalation; membrane or structure that serves to separate Diaphysis the shaft of long bone Diastole relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle Diencephalons "between" brain; parts of the brain between the cerebral hemispheres and the mesencephalon or midbrain Diffusion Movement of molecules from a region where they are in higher concentration to a region where they are in lower concentration. Digestion enzymes) Directional terms terms used in anatomy to state direction of body parts Duodenum the first subdivision of the small intestine where most chemical digestion occurs Effector responding organ; for example, voluntary and involuntary muscle, the heart, and glands Efferent carrying from, as neurons that transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the periphery; opposite of afferent Electrolytes compounds that dissociate in to ions when in solution Emulsify in digestion, when bile breaks up fat the break down of food materials either mechanically (that is chewing) or chemically (that is digestive 402 Human Anatomy and Physiology Endocardium lining of the heart Endocrine referring to a gland that releases its secretion directly into the bloodstream Endothelium epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels Endosteum connective tissue layer covering the inner hallow of bone Erythrocyte red blood cells Enzyme biochemical catalyst allowing chemical reaction to take place Epidermis the outer layer of skin Epiglottis leaf-shaped cartilage that covers the larynx during swallowing Epimysium sheath of fibrous connective tissue that encloses muscle Epinephrine adrenaline; secretion of the adrenal medulla Epithelial tissue tissues covering body surface and lining cavities Esophagus the muscular, mucus-lined tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach; also known as the food pipe Essential organs reproductive organs that must be present for reproduction to occur and are known as gonads Endosteum Epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Uterine tube/fallopian tube a tube leading from ovary to uterus Vagina Lower part of the birth canal that opens to the outside of the body; female organ of sexual intercourse Valve structure that keeps blood Vascular tissue a fluid tissue constituting blood Vasectomy Surgical removal of part or all of the ductus (vas) deferens; usually done on both sides to produce sterility Vein vessel that carries blood toward the heart Vena cava one of the two large veins that carry blood into the right atrium of the heart Ventilation movement of the air into and out of the lungs bundle of neuron fibers within the central nervous 412 Human Anatomy and Physiology Ventricle cavity or chamber; one of the two lower chambers of the heart Venule vessel between a capillary and a small vein Vertebra A bone of the spinal column; pl. Memmler, Ruth Lundeen and Dena Lin Wood (1987), the Human Body in Health and Disease, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 6th ed. Memmler, Ruth Lundeen, Barbara Jansen Cohen and Dena Lin Wood (1996), the Human Body in Health and Disease, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 8th edition. Subotanick, (1999), Sports medicine of lower extremities, Churchilllivingsten, New York, 2nd Ed. Some of these structures are very small and can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope. Gross anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification and will be a major focus of this lab component of this course. Macro- means "large," thus, gross anatomy is also referred to as macroscopic anatomy. In contrast, micromeans "small," and microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices and will be a major focus in the lecture component of this course. Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study of tissues (Figure 1. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures work together to serve a particular body region. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system-that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function. For example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body. This course takes a regional approach to learning the structures of the human body in order to put the many structures you will learn this semester into a functional context. Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions necessary for life. Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things. The study of physiology includes observation, both with the naked eye and with microscopes, as well as manipulations and measurements. Like anatomists, physiologists typically specialize in a particular branch of physiology. For example, neurophysiology is the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and how these work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as vision, movement, and thinking. Physiologists may work from the organ level (exploring, for example, what different parts of the brain do) to the molecular level (such as exploring how an electrochemical signal travels along nerves). Relationship between Anatomy & Physiology Form is closely related to function in all living things. For example, the thin flap of your eyelid can snap down to clear away dust particles and almost instantaneously slide back up to allow you to see again.

Hip disorders often produce a limp fungus gnats bradysia species purchase griseofulvin 250mg visa, a reduction in the distance that can be walked fungus gnats potting soil buy generic griseofulvin canada, and stiffness antifungal in pregnancy buy cheap griseofulvin line. Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis is one of the most common causes of hip pain in adults (Figure 5. Although patients with osteoarthritis of the hips usually present in their 60s or even 70s, the problem can present earlier, especially in patients with prior hip trauma or congenital abnormalities (see previous sections on hip pain in children). Treatment with local radiotherapy or bisphosphonates, or both, may slow the disease progress. Risk factors include immuncompromise, prior hip joint disease and infection elsewhere. Aspiration under fluoroscopic guidance is generally necessary to establish the diagnosis. Surgical drainage is usually necessary, along with prolonged intravenous antibiotics. Painful soft-tissue conditions around the hip Trochanteric bursitis-This is a usually self-limiting inflammation of the bursa between the greater trochanter and fascia lata. This condition frequently accompanies other musculoskeletal problems, such as spinal stenosis, that alter gait and attendant muscle forces across the greater trochanter. Local physiotherapy, antiinflammatories, rest, and occasionally local anaesthetic and steroid injections, can help. Iliopsoas bursitis-The iliopsoas bursa is deep to the psoas muscle and anterior to the hip joint. Pain occurs in the groin and anterior thigh and can be exacerbated by resisted hip flexion and passive hip extension. Thus, when the presentation is acute, especially painful and accompanied by systemic features, the work-up should be aggressive and include imaging-guided aspiration. Snapping iliopsoas tendon-This causes a painful "clunk" in the groin when the hip goes from extension to flexion. The psoas tendon impinges on the capsule of the hip anteriorly to produce discomfort. Diagnosis is made if movement of fluoroscopic X-ray contrast agent injected into the psoas tendon is abnormal. In extreme situations, leg length is lost, and the hip adopts a fixed flexion and adduction deformity. Total hip replacement is extremely effective at relieving pain and improving functional status in osteoarthritis. Other arthritides Rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis can also produce hip pain. A fall followed by inability to bear weight and a short externally rotated leg are diagnostic. An undisplaced fracture may not stop the patient from bearing weight, and it may not be visible on initial X-ray examination. Treatment is typically surgical and includes stabilization with plates and/or screws, or by replacement of the femoral head (hemiarthroplasty) or total hip replacement. Treatment of the disease with bisphosphonates can reduce pain, but coexistent osteoarthritis of the hip can also occur.

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Its posterior end is the origin of the mylopharyngeal part of the superior constrictor muscle of the pharynx fungus feet generic griseofulvin 250 mg fast delivery. Depression for the sublingual gland on the anterior part of the mandible above the mylohyoid line fungus amongus incubus buy griseofulvin cheap online. Depression for the submandibular gland on the posterior half of the body of the mandible below the mylohyoid line anti fungal tea buy cheap griseofulvin on line. Protrusions on the external surface of the mandible caused by the fan-like roots of the teeth. Posteriorly directed process which combines with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to form the zygomatic arch. A B 20 4 5 21 22 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 15 13 11 12 9 8 6 a Orbital eminence. Median connective tissue bridge between the right and left halves of the mandible. A cephalometric landmark indicating the lowest point on the midline of the mandible. C Bones 27 7 6 6a 4 8 8 6a 4 6 7 1 2 3 5 2 5 3 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 A Zygomatic bone, lateral view B Zygomatic bone, medial view 23 10 11 12 16 26 12 13 15 17 24 18 31 19 17 20 21 24 22 25 13 14 D Mandible, medial view C Mandible 15 16 17 29 28 30 18 19 31 20 27 E Mandible, superior view 21 22 23 24 25 a a A 28 Bones 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 7 6 5 Ramus of mandible. It is most erect in adults and very 18 wide in newborns and toothless elderly in19 dividuals (ca. Anthropometric landmark indicating 20 the most inferior, posterior, and lateral point of 20 a the angle of the mandible. Roughened area occasionally present on the external surface of the angle of the mandible. Layer of spongy bone (spongiosa) between the external and internal tables, especially in the cranial bones. Roughened area occasionally present on the internal surface near the angle of the mandible. Opening on the inner aspect of the mandibular ramus leading into the mandibular canal. Bony canal within the mandible for passage of the inferior alveolar artery and nerve. It begins at the mandibular foramen and passes beneath the roots of the teeth to the vicinity of the median plane. Groove extending forward and downward from the mandibular foramen and housing the mylohyoid nerve and the mylohyoid branch of the inferior alveolar artery. Muscular process separated from the posteriorly situated condylar process by the mandibular notch. D E 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 15 12 13 14 10 10 a Temporal crest. Sharp bony ridge at the anterior margin of the coronoid process for attachment of the temporalis muscle. Anteromedial pit below the head of the mandible for attachment of the lateral pterygoid muscle. Cranial cavity extending from the wall of the frontal bone to the lesser wing of the sphenoid. Cranial cavity extending from the lesser wing of the sphenoid to the petrous ridge of the temporal bone. Cranial cavity extending from the petrous ridge to the posterior (occipital) wall of 19 the skull. Canal formed by the palatine bone and maxilla for the descending palatine artery and the greater palatine nerve. Point of passage of the lesser petrosal nerve and point of exit of the chorda tympani from the skull.

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